Knowledge Resource Center for Ecological Environment in Arid Area
| 黄河上游十大孔兑泥沙产输过程及机制研究 | |
| 其他题名 | Study on processes and mechanisms of soil erosion and sediment transport in the ten kongduis of the upper Yellow River |
| 阳辉 | |
| 出版年 | 2017 |
| 学位类型 | 博士 |
| 导师 | 师长兴 |
| 学位授予单位 | 中国科学院大学 |
| 中文摘要 | 位于黄河上游内蒙古段的十大孔兑(孔兑为蒙语洪水沟的音译)，由于这些河流上游丘陵沟壑与中游沙漠地貌组合，加上其干旱与半干旱的气候，形成了风力与水力侵蚀强耦合的条件，使得这些流域的产输沙过程在地貌过程研究具有独特的理论价值。同时，十大孔兑涨落迅猛的高含沙洪水一是在孔兑下游冲积平原河段造成河道淤积，抬高河床，“悬河”发育，导致河道泄洪能力逐年下降。二是进入黄河后形成拦河沙坝，淤堵黄河，影响黄河排洪。减少十大孔兑来沙以缓解河道的淤积，已成为黄河上游流域治理战略中的重要组成部分。本文通过野外考察、观测及采样，结合十大孔兑水沙资料，地形、遥感影像、土壤、植被等数据，分析了十大孔兑泥沙侵蚀输移过程及机制。主要得到以下结论：利用DEM数据，提取十大孔兑各流域边界和河网水系，并分析十大孔兑河网水系特征及其对产沙的影响。结果表明：(1)十大孔兑流域为五到六级水系，流域圆度为0.16-0.26，狭长度为0.29-0.43，流域形状为狭长形。干流长与流域面积之间呈指数关系，指数取值范围为0.89-4.52。(2)各孔兑沟壑密度均小于2.5 km/km2，整个上游沟壑密度值从西往东呈减少的规律，主要分布在0-1 km/km2和1-2 km/km2之间。(3)十大孔兑的地表物质组成包括五种类型，分别为红砂土、栗钙土、冲积土、粗骨土和钙质土，冲积土的沟壑密度最大；十大孔兑NDVI和沟壑密度之间显著线性负相关。(4)十大孔兑上游坡地坡度主要集中分布在5°以下，随着坡度的增大，十大孔兑上游沟壑密度呈现减少的趋势，坡度0-2°之间，密度值均在2 km/km2以上，当坡度大于4°以后，沟壑密度值主要集中在0.5 km/km2及以下；十大孔兑在不同坡向上的沟壑分布存在一定差异性，南和东南方向上的沟壑发育程度高，西南和东北方向上的沟壑发育程度低。(5)产沙模数与沟壑密度之间呈极显著正相关性，即产沙模数随着沟壑密度增大而增加，且相关系数很高，由此推断十大孔兑侵蚀强弱受沟壑密度影响较大。基于分形理论，分析十大孔兑水系分形特征，同时利用水系分维数(Dg)判断流域地貌所处的侵蚀发育阶段。结果表明：(1)以毛不拉孔兑为例，确定无标度区为20-370 m。且各孔兑的地貌形态在该无标度区间内均表现出很好的分形特征。求得十大孔兑上游丘陵沟壑区的Dg为1.08-1.14。(2)十大孔兑水系分维值在不同的汇流面积阈值下变化不大；径流模数及产沙模数与水系分维均存在正相关关系。产沙模数与河网分维线性正相关关系反映了地貌发育幼壮年期地形条件对产沙的影响。(3)按水系分维数与流域起伏程度、坡度及的等高线分维值的关系，就十大孔兑而言，当Dg ≤ 1.06时，流域处于幼年期；当Dg ＞ 1.06时，流域进入壮年期。综合分析十大孔兑上游水系特征，计算上游沟壑密度，水系分维数以及高程积分值可知，流域地貌还处于侵蚀发育阶段的壮年期。其中，西部5条孔兑，包括毛不拉、丁红沟、黑赖沟、西柳沟和罕台川流域地貌处于侵蚀发育阶段壮年期的早期，沟道发育不完全，此时，水系尚未充分发育，沟道将会进一步发展，分枝比和沟壑密度继续增大，就地形地貌条件而言，未来流域侵蚀产沙的强度将趋向于增加。而位于东部的哈什拉、木哈尔、东柳沟和呼斯太河流域地貌处于侵蚀发育阶段壮年期的后期，沟道发育较完全，沟壑密度不再继续增大。利用三维激光扫描仪，考虑到十大孔兑的气候特征，以半年为监测周期，在2014年11月至2015年11月，分三次对毛不拉、西柳沟和东柳沟几条冲沟以及毛不拉和西柳沟过沙漠段部分河岸上沙丘进行扫描，分析典型地貌单元泥沙侵蚀及泥沙存储与释放过程，并估算毛不拉孔兑和西柳沟流域风沙入河量和总产沙量。结果表明，(1)从2014年11月到2015年6月，研究区的所有冲沟均表现为淤积，淤积强度相近，为0.59-0.86 kg/m2；从2015年6月到2015年11月，研究区的所有冲沟均表现为冲刷，侵蚀强度为0.19-25.0 kg/m2。然而，净冲淤量大部分都在误差范围内。(2)2个监测期内，毛不拉沙丘均为淤积，淤积总体积为311.5 m3，即沙丘向河床移动，沙丘淤积的量即为入河量。粗估得出毛不拉沙丘每米河段的风沙入河量为8.29 t/(m·a)。(3)第1个监测期内，西柳沟无植被沙丘每米河段平均淤积量为2.00 t，有植被沙丘为0.41 t；第2个监测期内，无植被沙丘每米河段平均入河沙量为4.8 t，有植被沙丘为3.2 t。无论是沙丘向河床移动量还是冲刷量，无植被沙丘均大于有植被沙丘，植被对沙丘有一定的固定作用。同时，估算得出2014年11月到2015年11月，毛不拉孔兑的风沙入河量为14.94×104 t，西柳沟流域为5.76×104 t。(4)估算得到2006年~2013年毛不拉孔兑年均总产沙量为339×104 t/a，西柳沟流域为861×104 t/a。泥沙输移比分别为0.10和0.07。沟蚀是流域中的主要泥沙来源，占整个流域泥沙总量的80%以上。林草植被覆盖度的增加是造成毛不拉孔兑和西柳沟流域的泥沙输移比均小于1的主要原因。其中，淤地坝的修建对于流域产沙的拦截和输移比的减小具有重要的影响。基于Google earth 影像，计算毛不拉、西柳沟流域和罕台川流域年际风沙入河量发现，毛不拉孔兑2011-2012年风沙入河量分别为15.74×104 t和18.2×104 t，西柳沟流域2012年为9.52×104 t，2013年和2015年春季分别为9.99×104 t和9.96×104 t，罕台川流域2012年为7.04×104 t，2013年和2015年春季分别为7.53×104 t和8.52×104 t。风速与风沙入河量相关关系不显著，说明风沙入河量可能并非完全决定于风速大小。受气候条件的影响，风沙入河既存在季节尺度也存在年尺度的存储与释放过程，但是十大孔兑多年平均年风沙入河量接近其长期平均河流搬运的风沙量。通过野外考察，结合流域所处的地貌条件，采样分析泥沙粒度沿程、垂向上的分布特征，结合分形理论，得出泥沙在整个流域的沉积特征。以毛不拉孔兑为例，沿程河床沉积物中以砂的平均含量最高，达84.17%，其他级配的颗粒物含量均较低，粉粒(14.62%)，粘粒(1.21%)。从流域上游至下游，砂粒含量呈下降趋势；平均粒径的范围为1.17-5.56 f，平均为2.62 f，属于砂的粒级范围，平均粒径总体变化趋势为距沟头越远，平均粒径越小；所有断面的分选系数均大于1，属于分选差的级别；偏度均大于0，均为正偏，尖度值在6.99~15.63之间，均为窄峰型。平均粒径和分选系数呈正相关，偏度和尖度呈正相关；毛不拉孔兑泥沙的主要运动形式为推移质，取样所代表的泥沙粒度分布特征更多地反映出水流分选的结果，并且显示出中小水不能挟带粗砂入黄河。产砂层颗粒组成差异可以看作沉积物颗粒组成差异的内因，水动力为影响沉积物粒度组成差异的外因。影响毛不拉孔兑泥沙粒度组成的主要因素为地貌条件，上游丘陵沟壑区是粗泥沙的主要来源。因此，控制和减少毛不拉孔兑粗泥沙入黄关键在于泥沙源的控制，应加强对上游坡地和沟道的水土保持治理。以西柳沟为例，在全流域布设43个采样点，采集沉积物表层样，分析风水两相侵蚀条件下流域沉积物粒径分形特征及其影响因素。结果表明，不同沉积环境下泥沙粒径分布分形维数不同，以水力侵蚀为主的丘陵沟壑区分形维数平均值最大，为2.48；以风力侵蚀为主的沙漠区分形维数平均值最小，为1.95。对于西柳沟流域，泥沙颗粒组成中粒径在0.05 mm以下的含量越高，粒径越离散，分维值越高；粒径在0.05-1 mm之间的颗粒含量越高，分形维数越低；粒径在1 mm以上的颗粒含量与分形维数关系不明显。相对来说，粉粒含量对于分形维数的影响大于粘粒含量。地貌条件主要影响的是河床样的泥沙粒径组成，产沙层土样的颗粒组成不受地貌条件的影响，河滩样的泥沙粒径组成受地貌条件和沉积环境的双重影响。采集十大孔兑下游冲积扇地层剖面沉积物样以及高含沙水流产生的混杂堆积样，分析其粒度组成特征，计算不同泥沙源的产沙比例以及入黄泥沙粒度组成可知，(1)高含沙水流携带的泥沙粒度组成呈双峰分布，包括细粉粒(0.002-0.02 mm)和粗砂(1.0-2.0 mm)，分别占27%-59%和3%-27%。上游砒砂岩中砾石级8 mm以上的颗粒仍可能因分选过程而沿程沉积下来，很难进入黄河。在不同的流域之间，高含沙水流挟带堆积的泥沙样平均粒径和中值粒径差异性较小，粒径基本集中在4-6 f之间，分选系数分布在2.28-4.73，属于分选差的范围。峰度均大于1，峰态比正态分布窄尖，偏度基本在-0.33到0.33之间，呈现近对称的分布。(2)下游冲积扇沉积地层的泥沙平均粒径主要分布在4.32 f以下，砂(0.05 mm以上)为主要级配，其中，毛不拉孔兑主要以1-2 mm为主，其余孔兑以0.1-0.25 mm为主。较砂为细的泥沙被大量带走。分选性主要在较差和差之间，砂级配的泥沙多数属于分选差的泥沙。偏度值均大于0，偏度与峰度存在较好的正相关关系。大部分样点的峰度值均大于4.5，属于极窄峰型，样品粒度分布集中。除了哈什拉孔兑以外，冲积扇沉积物的搬运作用主要以滚动为主，滚动组分和悬浮组分相混合，在介质搬运能力和沉积作用上，孔兑之间不存在明显的空间差异。(3)高含沙水流入黄泥沙中，孔兑之间中上游产沙不存在差异，主要来自上游丘陵沟壑区，其产沙比例在65%及以上。入黄泥沙在0.05 mm以上粒级的含量为24%-57%，平均值为42%。0.05 mm以上的泥沙来自上游丘陵沟壑区的比例平均为64%，来自中游沙漠区为36%。(4)非高含沙水流携带入黄泥沙主要以0.05 mm以下为主，粒级在0.05 mm以上的泥沙含量不到10%。各孔兑由非高含沙水流携带进入下游的泥沙，产自中游与上游的比例不同。毛不拉孔兑、哈什拉川及呼斯太河主要来自上游丘陵沟壑区，西柳沟和罕台川流域上中游产沙比例基本相等，丁红沟、黑赖沟、木哈尔河以及东柳沟主要来自中游沙漠区。 |
| 英文摘要 | With a configuration of upstream gullies and hilles in the upper reaches and deserts in the middle reaches and within an arid and semi-arid zone, the ten kongduis (kongdui is the transliteration of an ephemeral flood gully in Mongolian), which are located in the upper Yellow River in Inner Mongolia, are characterized by the strong coupled wind-water erosion, endowing sediment processes in these watersheds with unique theoretical values in geomorphic process research. At the same time, the hyper-concentrated flows resulting from the intensive erosion in the ten kongduis cause heavy siltation problems in the downstream alluvial plains, giving rise to the development of the "hanging river" by raising their riverbed, and resulting in the decrease of flood discharge capacity year by year. Additionally, after draining into the Yellow River, the sediment from these kongduis have caused serious siltation and sometimes develop sand dams, lowering the delivering capacity of flood of the Yellow River and even jamming the river for days. Thus, reducing the sediment from the ten kongduis and relieving the river siltation have become an important part of strategic management in the upper Yellow River basin. With the records of water and sediment, combining the remote sensing image data, field investigation and sediment sampling, the processes and mechanics of sediment erosion and transport in the ten kongduis were analyzed. Results have been obtained as follows:Using the DEM data, the drainage networks and watersheds of the kongduis were extracted, we analyzed the characteristics of river networks and their effect on the sediment yield. The results reveal that: (1) The ten kongduis are 5th-6th order streams and their watersheds are long and narrow with a circularity ratio of 0.16 - 0.26, an elongation ratio of 0.29 - 0.43 and a power of drainage area of 0.89 - 4.52 in the power function between mainstream length and drainage area. (2) The gully density of the upper reaches of the ten kongduis is less than 2.5 km/km2. It decreases from the west to the east and mainly ranges within 0 - 1 km/km2 and 1 - 2 km/km2. (3) The surface materials in the ten kongduis consist of five soil types, namely arenosols, kastanozems, fluvisols, regosols and calcisols. Among the five soil types, fluvisols has the highest gully density. The relation of the NDVI in the upper reaches of the ten kongduis in 2015 with the gully density is linearly and negatively correlated. (4) The slope gradient in the ten kongduis is mainly in the range of below 5°. With the increase of the slope gradient, the gully density decreases. The gullies are mainly distributed on slopes with a gradient of 0 - 2° where the density value is generally above 2 km/km2. When the slope is greater than 4°, the gully density reduces to a value below 0.5 km/km2. There exist differences in gully density in different slope aspects in all kongduis. In general, the gully density in the northeast and southwest aspects is slightly lower, and that in the southeast and south aspects is higher. (5) The gully density is found to be closely and positively related with the sediment yield. Based on the fractal theory and an analysis on the fractal characteristics of drainage in the ten kongduis, the evolution stages of the watershed topography were defined by different ranges of the fractal dimensions of river networks. The results show that: (1) The fractal scaleless range of the kongduis is 20 - 370 m. The fractal dimension of stream networks is independent of the threshold contributing area used for extracting the drainage networks from the DEM. The values of Dg in the upper ten kongduis are in the range of 1.08 - 1.14. (2) Both the runoff yield and the sediment yield are positively and linearly related with Dg. The positive relation between the sediment yield and Dg reflects the effect of landform features on sediment yield in the young and/or mature stages of landform evolution of the study area. (3) By revising the critical value of Dg, the value of Dg of the basin in the young evolution stage is less than 1.06, while it is more than 1.06 for the basin in the mature or old evolution stage. The gully density, fractal dimension of stream networks and hypsometric integrals of the upstream reaches of the ten kongduis suggest the upper ten kongduis are in the mature stage of landform evolution and the west five kongduis, including the Maobula, the Dinghonggou, the Heilaigou, the Xiliugou and the Hantaichuan kongduis, are in the early mature stage and their river networks are not yet fully developed. Therefore, under the existing natural conditions, the gullies in the upstream reaches of these kongduis may further develop, and the bifurcation ratio, gully density and the sediment yield may continue to increase in future. In contrast, the east four kongduis, including the Hashila, the Muhaer, the Dongliugou and the Husitai kongduis, are in the late mature period of landform evolution, and their gully density may decrease in future in the sense of landform evolution.With the 3D laser scanner, considering the climate characteristics of the ten kongduis, topographic surveys of seven plots, including four gullies in the Maobula, the Xiliugou and the Dongliugou kongduis and three dunes in the Maobula and the Xiliugou kongduis, were made by three times during November 2014 to November 2015. The results show that: (1) Sediment accumulations occurred in all the monitored gullies from November 2014 to June 2015 and were eroded from June 2015 to November 2015. In the surveyed gullies, net sediment accumulation occurred at a rate of 0.59 - 0.86 kg/m2 in the winter and spring from November 2014 to June 2015, and the net erosion had a rate of 0.19 - 25.0 kg/m2 in the summer from June 2015 to November 2015. Nevertheless, the net erosion/siltation was mostly within the ranges of their errors. (2) Over the two periods, the total volume of sand accumulation on the MBLSQ dune was 311.5 m3. As the MBLSQ dune rises from the river bed, the sand flux should be regarded as the amount of aeolian sand feeding into the river. The mean flux of aeolian sand feeding into the Maobula Kongdui was about 8.29 t/m from November 2014 to November 2015. (3) During the first monitoring period, the average sand flux of the unvegetated XLGSQ dune was 2.0 t/m and the vegetated XLGSQ dune was 0.41 t/m. During the second monitoring period, both the vegetated and unvegetated dunes were eroded with a flux of 4.8 t/m and 3.2 t/m, respectively. No matter the deposition or the erosion, the sand flux of the unvegetated XLGSQ dune was larger than that of the vegetated XLGSQ dune. This is not unexpected as the vegetation has a certain effect on fixing dunes. The amount of the aeolian sand feeding into the Maobula Kongdui was estimated to be about 14.94×104 t and it was about 5.76×104 t into the Xiliugou Kongdui during November 2014 to November 2015. (4) The total average annual sediment yield was estimated to be about 339×104 t/a for the Maobula Kongdui and 861×104 t/a for the Xiliugou Kongdui over the period of 2006 - 2013. The sediment delivery ratios of these two watersheds were about 0.10 and 0.07, respectively, over the period of 2006 - 2013. The sediment from the gullies in these two watersheds was the main sediment resources and accounted for more than 80% of the total sediment yield. The reduced sediment delivery ratios in recent years could be attributed to the increase of vegetation coverage and the construction of sediment-trapping dams. Using the satellite images of Google Earth, the annual amount of aeolian sand feeding into the Maobula, the Xiliugou and the Hantaichuan kongduis were calculated. The results reveal that the amount of aeolian sand feeding into the Maobula Kongdui was about 15.74×104 t in 2011 and 18.2×104 t in 2012. The amount of that into the Xiliugou Kongdui was 9.52×104 t in 2012, 9.99×104 t and 9.96×104 t in spring in 2013 and 2015, respectively. For the Hantaichuan Kongdui, the amount of aeolian sand feeding into the river was 7.04×104 t in 2012, 7.53×104 t and 8.52×104 t in spring in 2013 and 2015, respectively. Under the influence of the climate, it is clear that both interseasonal and interannual sediment storage and release processes exist in the delivery of aeolian sediment feeding into the river. However, for the ten kongduis, the average annual amount should be close to the long-term average amount of aeolian sand transported by the flows. The wind speed has no significant correlation with the amount of aeolian sand feeding into the river.With the field survey, some sediment sampling sites were set in the kongduis according to the geomorphology conditions. In the Maobula Kongdui, the sand grains are the main component of the surface deposits in the riverbed from the upper reach to the lower reach on average (84.17%), and the silt and clay grains account for only 14.62% and 1.21%, respectively. The content of sand shows a decreasing trend downstream. Average grain-size rangs in 1.17 - 5.56 f, 2.62 f on average, belonging to the sand grain-size. There exsits an overall decreasing trend in the average grain-size downstream. The standard deviation of all sites is over one, indicating a poor sorting degree. Ranging from 6.99 to 15.63, deposits have a positively skewed grain size frequency distribution curve with a sharp kurtosis. The average grain-size and sorting coefficient are positively correlated, and so are the skewness and kurtosis. The main transporting form of sediment in Maobula Kongdui is bed load. The results of the samplings reflect the grain-size distribution characteristics of sediment sorted by the flows with a low sediment concentration and show that small flows cannot bring coarse sediments into the Yellow River. Sediment size composition can be seen as internal factors influencing different sediment particles composition and hydrodynamic effects are external ones. The geomorphic unit is found to be the main factor influencing the grain size, and the coarse sediment mainly comes from the hilly and gully region in the upper stream. Therefore, the key to controlling and reducing coarse sediment yield from the Maobula Kongdui is to control the sediment source by strengthening soil and water conservation on the upstream slopes and in gullies.Using the factal theory and taking the Xiliugou Kongdui as an example, total 43 surface sediment samples in different locations were collected in the kongdui to study the fractal dimension of particle size distribution and influencing factors in a basin with coupled wind-water erosion processes. The results show that the fractal dimension of particle size distribution changes with depositional environment. The average fractal dimension is the highest (2.48) in the hilly-gullies region which is dominated by water erosion, while it is the lowest (1.95) in the desert region in which wind erosion is much active. The fractal dimension grows with the content of particles lower than 0.05 mm, but it decreases with the increase of content of particles within 0.05 - 1 mm. The relation between the fractal dimension and the content of particles larger than 1mm is not significant. The influence of silt content on the fractal dimension is greater than that of clay content. The sediments on river bed in different geomorphic units have significant discrepant particle size composition and the particle size composition of sediments on berms changes evidently in both different geomorphic units along the river and different depositional environments within the floodplains, while the particle size composition of sediment sources, the regolith or loess, doesn’t show obviously variations between different geomorphic units.Sediment samples were collected from drilling cores in the alluvial fans in the lower reaches of the ten kongduis and deposits profiles of hyperconcentrated flows, and their grain-size characteristics were analyzed. Based on the grain-size data and the grain-size proportions of each sediment source in a kongdui, the contributions of sediment from the sources and the grain-size fractions of sediment outputs to the Yellow River were calculated. The results show that: (1) The sediments carried by the hyperconcentrated flows show a bimodal distribution, including two peaks at fine silt (0.002 - 0.02 mm) and coarse sand (1.0 - 2.0 mm), accounting for 27 - 59% and 3 - 27%, respectively. The gravel greater than 8 mm is deposited in the bed due to hydraulic sorting and can’t be carried down to the Yellow River by the hyperconcentrated flows. The mean grain diameter and median diameter of sediment carried by the hyperconcentrated flows are mainly distributed from 4 to 6 f. The sorting coefficients are in 2.28 - 4.73, which belongs to the scale of very poorly sorted. The kurtosis values are greater than 1, suggesting that the size distributions are more concentrated with a narrow and sharp peak compared with the normal distribution. The skewness values range from -0.33 to 0.33, which belong to the near symmetric distribution. (2) Most of the sediments carried by the non-hyperconcentrated flows have a mean grain size below 4.32 f (or above 0.05 mm) and mainly concentrate in the range of sand size (0.05 - 2 mm). Specifically, the mean grain size is mainly distributed in 1 - 2 mm in the Maobula Kongdui and in 0.1 - 0.25 mm in the rest kongduis. The sorting is poor or very poor. The skewness values of all samples are above 0, showing a positive skewness. There is a positive relationship between skewness and kurtosis. The kurtosis values of most of the samples are greater than 4.5, illustrating a very narrow peak in their size distribution, which may be resulted from the direct deposition of the originally well-sorted particles. The transportation of particles is through rolling and suspension except for the Hashila Kongdui. There are no obvious spatial differentiations of transport and deposition kinetics between kongduis. (3) A proportion of 65% or above of sediment carried by the hyperconcentrated flows mainly comes from the upper reaches. The particles above 0.05 mm from the pisha sandstone and loess account for 64%, on average, of the same size particles carried downstream to the alluvial fans by the hyperconcentrated flows, and it is 36% from the desert in the middle reaches. (4) The sediments carried by non-hyperconcentrated flows down to the alluvial fans have mainly derived from the gully and hilly regions in the Maobula, the Hashila and the Husitai kongduis, equally from the upper and middle reaches in the Xiliugou and the Hantaichuan kongduis, and mainly from the desert regions in the Dinghonggou, the Heilaigou, the Muhaer and the Dongliugou kongduis. Over 90% of the sediments carried by the non-hyperconcentrated flows into the Yellow River are below 0.05 mm. |
| 中文关键词 | 黄河上游 ; 十大孔兑 ; 泥沙输移 ; 河网水系 ; 粒度 ; 三维激光扫描仪 |
| 英文关键词 | the upper Yellow River ten kongduis sediment delivery river network grain size 3D laser scanner |
| 语种 | 中文 |
| 国家 | 中国 |
| 来源学科分类 | 自然地理学 |
| 来源机构 | 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所 |
| 资源类型 | 学位论文 |
| 条目标识符 | http://119.78.100.177/qdio/handle/2XILL650/287868 |
| 推荐引用方式 GB/T 7714 | 阳辉. 黄河上游十大孔兑泥沙产输过程及机制研究[D]. 中国科学院大学,2017. |
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