Knowledge Resource Center for Ecological Environment in Arid Area
| 气候变化背景下畜牧业与野生动物保护间的冲突——气候因子对中国巴基斯坦喀喇昆仑-帕米尔跨境脆弱山地生态系统9和畜牧业的影响研究 | |
| 其他题名 | Pastoralism-wildlife conflict in climate change context - a study of climatic factors influencing fragile ecosystems and pastoral livelihoods in the Karakoram Pamir trans-border area between China and Pakistan |
| BABAR KHAN | |
| 出版年 | 2012 |
| 学位类型 | 博士 |
| 导师 | 阿布力米提 |
| 学位授予单位 | 中国科学院大学 |
| 中文摘要 | 在中国与巴基斯坦跨边境的喀喇昆仑-帕米尔地区就有彼此相连的两个跨边境保护区, 即中国塔什库尔干自然保护区（Taxkorgan Nature Reserve -TNR）和巴基斯坦红其拉甫国家公园（Khunjerab National Park - KNP），视为亚洲山地中最重要的野生动保护区。这两个保护区（Protected area - PA）栖息着相当数量的世界有名的野生动物，如马克波罗盘羊(Ovisammonpolii)、雪豹(Unciauncia),、喜玛拉雅棕熊(Ursusarctos)、藏灰狼(Canis lupus chanco)和岩羊(Pseudoisnayaur)等物种。已有很多年，像其它很多山区一样，牲畜被大型食肉动物捕食的现象屡屡发生，已成为喀喇昆仑-帕米尔山区保护野生动物和发展畜牧业之间应要考虑的突出问题。但是由于缺乏可靠的数据，这个问题不仅未能解决，反而在环境与气候变化背景下变得越来越严重。本论文拟在社会、经济和生态维上，研究人-食肉动物-食草动物之间相互作用及对周边环境变化响应和适应机理，探讨既能保证牧民们的生产生活，又能保护狩猎动物和猎食动物的管理模式，提出优化管理建议。\n本论文采取综合应用多种研究方法完成。在巴基斯坦红其拉甫国家公园（红其拉甫和喜母沙尔流域面积合约1186.70 km2）和中国塔什库尔干自然保护区高山区（木孜塔格山面积约708 km2）进行详细的有蹄类动物的种群、分布和储量，生物量和栖息地评价研究，并利用基于GIS的Maxent模型将研究成果外推到整个喀喇昆仑-帕米尔边境区域(± 20,000 km2)获得物种分布和栖息地评价。对于食肉动物采用了无损害基因取样技术，即自动拍摄和排泄物取样技术；对雪豹和狼（作为主要食肉动物）的猎物选择与领地划分研究采用了Chesson’s和Pianka’s指数比较法。利用GIS ArcMap 10和Definiens recognition 2007软件完成了1999和2009两个时期的土地覆被分类及其变化检测；在红其拉甫国家公园（KNP）缓冲区，对200户居民进行了放牧-食草动物-食肉动物相互作用的问卷调查；从塔什库尔干县畜牧局获取了1997-2009年间被食肉动物捕食的家畜总数记录数据。利用研究区域(KP TBA)的Landsat, WORLDCLIM and MODIS 数据，在ArcMap 10 GIS 软件和ERDAS Imagine 图像处理软件的支持下利用Maxent模拟了物种空间分布、最适栖息地和生态相互作用。主要研究结论如下：\n（1）研究结果表明，喜玛拉雅北山羊 (Capra ibex sibirica)、岩羊 (Pseudoisnayaur) 和马克波罗盘羊(Ovisammonpolii) 为该区域主要有蹄类食草物种, 而雪豹 (Unciauncia)、藏灰狼(Canis lupus chanco)、棕熊 (Ususarctosisabelinus) 和喜玛拉雅猞猁 (Felis lynx) 等，则为该区域主要食肉类物种。当地居民的放牧活动主要集中在保护区内和周边草场使生产生活得益继续。虽然放牧规模又一定的差异，但都由山羊、绵羊、牛和牦牛等家畜组成。小型反刍动物不像牛和牦牛一样挑剔，比较容易放养，便得到当地牧民的喜爱。研究区域被捕食的程度主要取决于野生猎物数量、放牧规模、放牧实践和猎食者年龄。雪豹、藏灰狼和猞猁等被认为是首要的牲畜扑食着，但是棕熊没有被列在其中，主要是因为棕熊很少与家畜有杰出的机会。雪豹猎杀的家畜数量最多，主要是绵羊和山羊，而狼主要猎杀<2岁小牦牛，猞猁则偶尔猎杀小羊和羊羔。\n（２）最大的扑食记录出现在夏季月份（7-8月）的白天袭击牧群和晚上袭击牧圈。随着红其拉甫国家公园（KNP）的保护措施的加强，引起食肉动物的行为发生变化，使隐蔽性扑食着也变得无惧怕白天猎食，尤其是雪豹。由于野生猎物数量很少，因此牧畜已变成食肉动物食物的主要来源。在红其拉甫国家公园（KNP）的当地居民针对食肉动物带来的相当可观的损失持着积极的态度，然而塔什库尔干自然保护区（TNR）内的居民却有完全不同的态度，他们对食肉动物烦感，并且希望在研究区域消灭这些食肉动物。当地居民这种态度上的差异取决于他们的教育水平以及野生资源保护利用利益与生态关系的理解水平上。两个保护区的人们普遍认为由于保护区加强了对野生食肉动物的保护力度后牲畜与食肉动物之间的冲突越来越加剧。\n（３）研究更进一步表明，在红其拉甫国家公园和塔什库尔干自然保护区内的土地覆被主要由裸岩石、土壤和荒漠组成，占研究区域的49%，其次为高山草甸、草地和灌木林地占23.5%, 积雪占19.47%，可耕地、耕地和种植园占6.50%以及冰川占0.5%，自然森林几乎可被忽略只有不到0.7 km2。只占总面积中很小比例的耕地始终是是山区居民的主要生活来源。植物区系资源包括山地植被、平原植被、绿洲植被、荒漠植被和沼泽植被。在山区和草原因降水少、冬季寒冷，故植被稀少，主要的建群种有几种草本植物和半灌木植物组成。记录得植物种类总数达152种，其中紫菀科（Asteraceae）植物为常见种，将近36%的植物为兴都库什和喜马拉雅区域发现的特有物种。所有的五个植被带中植物的长势从北到南以生态状况的不同而出现相当大的差异，如树林主要出现在高湿润区域和年平均气温适宜生长的边界区域。当地居民根据植被特点把他们当作食物、纺织品、药物和饲料来维持生活甚至拿到市场去卖。其中土地利用/土地覆被类型中有3类型的变化速率很高。荒漠化面积增加，高山草甸、草地和灌木林地面积的不断减少，也影响着草食动物及其关联的食肉动物分布，冰雪覆盖地的进一步减少使在雪源生存的濒危物种雪豹栖息地迅速缩小，最终将导致这个区域食肉动物-家畜相互冲突加剧。\n（4）喜玛拉雅北山羊、岩羊和马克波罗盘羊广泛分布于喀喇昆仑－帕米尔跨境区域内，但是它们的种群数量因地而异，这与食物源、狩猎活动和放牧压力以及多种生态地理因素等有着密切关系，如坡度、海拔、峭壁悬崖距离、排水和气候条件等，然而，这些动物种群仍然保持自维持系统发展状态。我们在考场基础上计算的预测值，除了岩羊外，喜玛拉雅北山羊和马克波罗盘羊的种群密度与尼泊尔、中国、不丹和印度等国保护区公布的种群密度相符，但是，预测的生物量要比各个保护区记录的生物量都很低。研究表明，稀有濒危的马克波罗盘羊和雪豹自由的穿插活动在中国-巴基斯坦两国以及其他邻国国际边境地区，但它们的非法捕猎、栖息地退化和其他人类活动造成的干扰，比如喀喇昆仑公路、过度采挖饲草和取暖材料、过度放牧以及中-巴边境围栏拉伸使栖息地破碎化程度提高，阻碍异群交叉交配的同时又削减遗传基因多样性、种群活力和抵挡严寒的气候和食物短缺等极端条件的能力。\n（5）雪豹、狼和喜玛拉雅猞猁等是该区的主要食肉动物物种，但是雪豹(0.24 雪豹/100 km-2)和狼是该区主要捕食者，主要以各种猎物包括家畜（占40.13%）、中等哺乳动物(占21.7%)、小型哺乳动物(占16.6%)和野生食草类(占14 %)作为其食物来源，但是没有发现取食有非肉类的食物，可能得原因是它们的食谱较广，可获得猎物的可能性大有关。这两种食肉动物除了有蹄类动物外，对其他猎物的选择是不随意地，这取决于该区域猎物物种的相对丰富度和可获得性较高。狼比雪豹能够捕食更大的猎物。Chesson’s指数显示，雪豹比狼更喜欢捕食中小型猎物，而狼更喜欢体型大一些的猎物，家畜中的牦牛和有蹄类中的北山羊等。雪豹粪便中高频的出现马克波罗盘羊是一个例外，在喀尔岔乃地区是马克波罗盘羊的繁殖地（产羔区）雪豹大量捕猎小羊和羊羔。虽狼的捕食活动范围（有10 种猎物)比雪豹（有17种猎物）的小而狭窄，但是这两种捕食者时间是相互分开的(> 90%)，且由于它们两个有一定季节性捕食猎物的习性，因此，食物的重叠也是最小的（Pianka指数为 0.07）。冬季的猎物以野生的猎物为主，而家畜、旱獭以及其它小型哺乳动物出现在夏季猎物中，这可能与后两者在夏季的数量较多有关。仅根据雪豹日肉食需求量(1.5 kg /天-1)计算的年消耗量占可获得年生物量(116640 kg)的40-55%左右，这个比例远远大于年新增生物量（11%），这也可能导致猎物-捕猎者平衡，并且提高对被捕食猎物物种和家畜压力。\n（6）通过Maxent模型获得的结果证明，北山羊、岩羊和马克波罗盘羊在整个喀喇昆仑-帕米尔跨境区域广泛分布但具有区域型差异，而且，家畜和野生有蹄类动物栖息地具有相当大的重叠。在共用栖息地内预测的家畜被捕食的概率很高。物种的分布受温度、降雨量、海拔、逃脱距离、坡度、方位、NDVI 和NDSI等气候和地理因素差异的强烈制约。很显然，时常出现结冰温度一下的异常的严寒气候条件，土地覆被和降水量是控制有蹄类动物物种分布和栖息地的主要因子。因此，气候和其它生态地理条件的急剧变化都严重影响该区域物种分布及其种群和生态系统。\n通过该区域保护管理者、参与者、决策者和牧人充分地协商，设计出一个能够兼顾野生动物和牧民而两者利益的，完整的保护和发展战略（策略），有利于解决日益加剧的人与野生动物之间的矛盾。通过采取对家畜被捕猎的牧民进行补偿机制来保护和恢复其栖息地来恢复野生猎物，将减小家畜被捕猎的消极影响。经过大尺度地提高本地居民的环境意识，对林业、畜牧业和家畜管理的技术培训和能力建设，再加上增加收入的机会，如发展生态旅游业、民族植物学相关行业的发展使生活来源多样化，能够有效减轻对自然保护区内资源的压力。合理的区划资源利用区、修养娱乐区和核心区（地带）有助于保护区的有效管理。清除设置在中-巴边境沿线野生动物关键栖息地和野生动物通道的拦网等物理障碍物，从而强有利得保障野生动物在国际边境自由穿越和转移，让它们保持遗传基因多样性和抵御严酷的气候和食物短缺条件的活力。另一方面，在大量家畜北野生食肉动物猎杀的与野生食草动物共享栖息地的区域，逐渐减少的家畜数量是一个很有效地方法。一次性清理所有的家畜很有可能导致对有限的野生猎物的捕猎压力，并迫使捕食动物被迫扩大活动范围长距离的捕猎活动。设计制定帕米尔山边境区域野生生物保护与可持续发展综合协同策略是中国-巴基斯坦两国的迫切需求；尤其两国为喀喇昆仑-帕米尔边境区域人们提供社会经济发展机会的同时更加需要更好的保护和管理两国相邻的珍贵自然资源。 |
| 英文摘要 | The Karakoram Pamir trans-border area between China and Pakistan with two contiguous trans-boundary protected areas viz.,Taxkorgan Nature Reserve (TNR) in China and Khunjerab National Park (KNP) in Pakistan, is known as one of the most important wildlife areas in the mountains of Asia. Both the Protected Areas (PA) have significant populations of globally significant wildlife species i.e., Marco Polo sheep (Ovisammonpolii), Snow leopard (Unciauncia), Brown bear (Ursusarctos), Tibetan gray wolf (Canis lupus chanco) and Blue sheep (Pseudoisnayaur). Like many other mountain areas, livestock predation by large carnivores has been a serious conservation issue and a livelihood concern in the mountain of Karakoram and Pamir for the last many years, but having no adequate reliable information, this issue not only remained untangled, rather got intensified with recent changes in the environmental and climatic conditions of the area. This study was therefore specially designed to understand social, economic and ecological dimensions of human-carnivore-herbivore interactions, their dynamics, response and adjustment to changing environs. So that appropriate management recommendations could be devised for protection of prey and predator populations while safeguarding the pastoral livelihoods. \n \nThe study was carried out using a multitude of research methodologies. Intensive research on ungulates population, distribution, abundance, biomass and habitat assessment was carried out mostly in Pakistan’s Khunjerab National Park (Khunjerab and Shimshal catchments; 1186.70 km2) and high mountain areas of Taxkorgan Nature Reserve (Muztagh; 708 km2) and results were extrapolated to the entire Karakoram Pamir Trans border area (± 20,000 km2) through GIS based Maxent (Maximum Entropy) modeling technique for species distribution and habitat suitability. For carnivores, non-invasive genetic sampling techniques i.e., Camera trapping and scat sampling were used. Prey selectivity and niche partitioning by Snow leopard and Wolf (principal predators) were tested comparing Chesson’s and Pianka’s indices. Landcover classification and change analysis was carried out in GIS,ArcMap 10, and Definiens recognition 2007 for two different time intervals viz., 1999 and 2009. Questionnaire based survey was held for pastoralism-herbivore-carnivore interaction interviewing some 200 households from KNP buffer zone communities and information on total livestock predation during 1979-2009 was acquired from the archival records of Taxkorgan Livestock department, Xinjiang. Spatially explicit species distribution, habitat suitability and ecological interactions were modeled for extensive analysis (KP TBA) in Maxent using GIS ArcMap 10 and ERDAS Imagine with Landsat, WORLDCLIM and MODIS data sets for the study area. \n \n(1) The study revealed that Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), Blue sheep (Pseudoisnayaur) and Marco polo sheep (Ovisammonpolii) are major ungulates, whereas Snow leopard (Unciauncia), Tibetan gray wolf (Canis lupus chanco), Brown bear (Ususarctosisabelinus) and Himalayan lynx (Felis lynx) are major carnivore species. Local communities graze their livestock on pastures in and around the PAs making a livelihood out of livestock herding. Although herd size varies greatly from place to place but mostly comprises of goats, sheep, cows and yaks. Small ruminants are much preferred being non luxuriant than cows and yaks. Predation levels differ among different study zones depending upon abundance of wild prey, size of livestock herd, herding practices and the predator’s age. Snow leopard, wolf and lynx are the primary predators while, Brown bear despite its presence was not reported being fatal for livestock, perhaps due to less interaction with domestic stock. Snow leopard has killed highest number of domestic animals mostly sheep and goats whereas, wolf killed more juvenile yaks often <2 years old. Lynx was said to occasionally predating on animal young like kids and lambs. \n \n(2）Maximum kills were recorded in pastures during summer months (July-August) either while attended grazing or in pens at night, which is probably be due to greater number of animals grazed on pastures and the primitive structure of corals. Changing carnivore behavior due to improved protection measures in KNP can also be a reason for the fearlessness of illusive carnivores, particularly snow leopard. Livestock offer a considerable proportion of the carnivore diet as wild prey base is abysmally low but despite considerable losses, more respondents from KNP have positive attitudes towards predators but it is totally different in case of TNR where people are annoyed of carnivores, and suggested their complete elimination from the study area. The differences in attitudes of local communities could be attributed to their level of education, understanding of ecological relationships and the conservation benefits accrued from use of wild resources. People attribute escalated conflict between pastoralists and carnivores to better protection of carnivores after notification of PAs on either sides of the border. \n \n(3）The study further showed that bare rock, soil and desert constituted the largest land cover use (49%) in KP TBA followed by alpine pastures, grass and shrub lands (23.5%), snow (19.47%), arable, cultivated and plantation (6.50%) and glaciers (0.5%). Natural forest class was almost negligible (<0.7 km2). Very small proportion of the total land area is under agriculture shaping livestock herding still a major source of livelihood for the mountain dwellers. Flora resources included mountain vegetation, plain vegetation, oasis vegetation, desert vegetation and marshland vegetation. On the mountains and steppes where rainfall was low and winters were cold, the flora was not rich but in the cold deserts often several grasses and sub shrubs dominated the vegetation. A total of 152 plant species were recorded and Asteraceae was the most common family. Almost 36% of the flora was found endemic to HKH region. In all the five vegetation zones, plant life varied according to local ecological conditions rather than north-south location. Trees, for instance, were found in high moisture areas and shelter belts where average annual temperature permitted their growth. Local communities depend on the natural vegetation resources for food, fiber, medicine and fodder both for subsistence as well as for sale. Three out of seven major land uses are fast changing. Increasing desertification, decreasing alpine meadows, grass and shrub lands may adversely affect the distribution of herbivores and their associated carnivores during the years to come whereas, a further decrease in snow cover can be alarming for the endangered snow leopards as its habitat is shrinking rapidly, which may further intensify carnivore-livestock interaction in the area. \n \n(4）H. ibex, B. sheep and M. P. sheep are widely distributed across KP TBA though their population varies from place to place, depending upon available food resources, hunting and grazing pressures and eco-geographical factors i.e., slope, elevation, cliff distance, drainage and prevailing climatic conditions, however, their populations in most of the cases was viable. Estimated densities for ibex and MPS tally with the reports from PAs in Nepal, China, Bhutan and India, except Blue sheep that did not show up adequately during the surveys, but estimated total biomass is lowest amongst the regional records. Study also showed that rare and endangered Marco Polo’s sheep (MPS) and Snow leopard freely move across international borders between China and Pakistan and other adjacent countries but their illegal hunting, habitat degradation and other anthropogenic disturbances i.e., roaring traffic on Karakoram Highway, excessive collection of fodder and firewood, over stocking and the border fence stretched at some places along Pakistan-China border, have worse fragmented their habitats, which may impede cross fertilization and reduce genetic diversity and vigor of the species to withstand harsh climatic and scarce food conditions, peculiar to the area. \n \n(5）Snow leopard, wolf, brown bear and Himalayan lynx are the major carnivore species but Snow leopard (0.24 animals 100 km-2) and wolf are the primary predators, acquiring food from variety of prey species including livestock (40.13%), meso mammals (21.7%), small mammals (16.6%) and wild herbivores (14 %) but not consumed any nonfleshy matter, possibly due to wider range of prey availability. Both the carnivores were non-randomly selective towards prey, except ungulates when compared alone, otherwise depending upon relative abundance and availability of prey species in the area. Wolf predation was high on large mammals than snow leopard. Chesson’s indices showed snow leopard’s preferred small and medium size prey than wolf, which preferred comparatively larger prey species i.e., yak among livestock and ibex in ungulates. High occurrence of Marco polo sheep in snow leopard scats was an exception, possibly due to high predation on sheep’s lambs and young in Qarchanai area; the sheep’s lambing habitat. Wolf’s niche is narrower (10 prey species) than that of Snow leopard (17 species) but mostly partitioned (> 90%) between the two, with a minimal diet overlap (Pianka index 0.07) with a slight seasonal variation in prey selection. Wild prey was taken more in winter and livestock, marmots and other small mammals were high in summer diets, possibly due to abundance of the later on pastures during summer. Estimated annual harvest of around 40 – 55% of the total available biomass (116640 kg) calculated based on the daily meat requirement of a snow leopard (1.5 kg day-1) alone is fairly high compared to annual growth through new recruitment (11%), which may destabilize the prey-predator balance, and exert high predation pressure on other prey species including livestock. \n \n(6) The results of Maxent model confirmed the wider and varying distribution of ibex, blue sheep and Marco polo sheep in the entire KP TBA, with a considerable amount of habitat overlap between livestock and ungulates. Predictive livestock predation by carnivores was high on shared habitats. Species distribution is strongly influenced by climatic and geographic variables such as temperature, precipitation, elevation, escape distance, slope, aspect, NDVI and NDSI. Most prominently, the peculiar harsh climatic conditions with often below freezing temperatures, land cover and precipitation are the major factors that control distribution and habitat use of ungulate species. Hence rapid changes in climatic and other eco-geographic conditions may have greater influence on species distribution, their assemblages and ecosystems in the area.\n\nDevising a comprehensive integrated conservation and development strategy by conservation managers, practitioners, decision makers and herders, adequately addressing the needs of both wildlife and local herders, is required to manage the escalating human-wildlife conflict in the region. Restoration of wild prey through protection and habitat restoration with some compensation mechanisms for livestock losers will help minimize the negative impacts of predation. Raising environmental awareness at large scale, training and capacity building in social forestry, animal husbandry and livestock management coupled with other income generating opportunities i.e., promotion of eco-tourism and ethno botanical entrepreneurships can also help diversify livelihoods and divert subsistence pressure from PA resources. Appropriate zonation of different areas as Resource Use Zone, Recreational Zone, and Core Zone will help manage the PAs. Clearing of all physical barriers including the border fence from most critical habitats and important wildlife corridors along Pak-China border is strongly suggested to ensure free movement of wild animals across international borders, helping them maintain their genetic diversity and physical vigor to withstand the harsh climatic conditions and food scarcity. For some parts, a gradual decrease in livestock numbers sharing the habitats with wild herbivores will be useful, as livestock contribution in carnivore diet is considerably high. Shifting livestock all at once may divert whole predation pressure onto limited wild prey causing their extinction and the predators too in the long run. A comprehensive joint management strategy on conservation and sustainable development in Pamir border region is therefore needed for both the countries; China and Pakistan to better protect and manage their shared precious resources, while opening avenues for social and economic development of their peoples in the KP border region. |
| 中文关键词 | 畜牧业 ; 人与野生动物冲突 ; 社会生态交互 ; 狩猎动物 ; 食肉动物 ; 喀喇昆仑-帕米尔 |
| 英文关键词 | Pastoralism human-wildlife conflict socio-ecological interactions prey species predators Karakoram Pamir |
| 语种 | 中文 |
| 国家 | 中国 |
| 来源学科分类 | 生态学 |
| 来源机构 | 中国科学院新疆生态与地理研究所 |
| 资源类型 | 学位论文 |
| 条目标识符 | http://119.78.100.177/qdio/handle/2XILL650/287140 |
| 推荐引用方式 GB/T 7714 | BABAR KHAN. 气候变化背景下畜牧业与野生动物保护间的冲突——气候因子对中国巴基斯坦喀喇昆仑-帕米尔跨境脆弱山地生态系统9和畜牧业的影响研究[D]. 中国科学院大学,2012. |
| 条目包含的文件 | 条目无相关文件。 | |||||
| 个性服务 |
| 推荐该条目 |
| 保存到收藏夹 |
| 导出为Endnote文件 |
| 谷歌学术 |
| 谷歌学术中相似的文章 |
| [BABAR KHAN]的文章 |
| 百度学术 |
| 百度学术中相似的文章 |
| [BABAR KHAN]的文章 |
| 必应学术 |
| 必应学术中相似的文章 |
| [BABAR KHAN]的文章 |
| 相关权益政策 |
| 暂无数据 |
| 收藏/分享 |
除非特别说明，本系统中所有内容都受版权保护，并保留所有权利。
