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Ectomycorrhizas (EMS) are mutualistic associations between certain soil fungi and higher plants. EMs can modulate the cellular, physiological and molecular processes of host plants, resulting in altered responses of the colonized plants to heavy metals. Progress in elucidating the role of EMs in modulating heavy metal tolerance of host trees is reviewed. In the last decade, a number of ectomycorrhizal fungal isolates and host plants have been characterized for their tolerance to heavy metals. Additionally, the cellular processes have been investigated with regard to heavy metal uptake, transport, distribution, toxicity and detoxification by ectomycorrhizal fungi and/or host plants. At the cellular level, mechanisms of heavy metal detoxification include (i) binding of heavy metals to cell wall and extracellular exudates, (ii) decreased uptake and/or pumping metal ions out of cytosol, (iii) chelation of metal ions in cytosol, (iv) compartmentation of metals in vacuoles or other subcellular structures, and (v) repair of damaged biomolecules. The efficiency of these protective measures is often increased by EMs, resulting in improved physiological status and rescued growth. While physiological and cellular responses to heavy metals have been well studied, experimental data on the underlying molecular mechanisms, especially those induced by the interaction of ectomycorrhizal fungi and hosts, are scattered. Progress in genome sequencing of EM partners has revealed the importance of metal transporters in mediating tolerance. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms is essential for effective application of selected fungal isolates and hosts to improve the efficiency of bioremediation on heavy metal polluted sites. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.