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Soil studies of ancient agricultural fields contribute to research on long-term human-environmental relationships and land use sustainability. This kind of research is especially applicable in desert landscapes of the American Southwest because: (1) soil formation is slow enough that cultivation effects persist for centuries to millennia; (2) many ancient fields in valley margins have remained uncultivated since they were abandoned, so long-term soil properties reflect ancient agricultural use; and (3) agricultural features (e.g., terraces, rock alignments and rock piles, and irrigation canals) provide clues for identifying and sampling ancient cultivated and uncultivated soils. Surficial remnants of these field systems persist and remain intact in many cases. Soil studies of ancient and modern American Indian agricultural systems across the Southwest indicate that soil changes are highly variable, ranging from degradation (e.g., organic matter/nutrient decline, compaction), to minimal net change, to enhanced soil quality. Soil changes caused by cultivation can be inferred by comparing soils in agricultural fields relative to reference uncultivated areas in similar landscape settings (that is, space-for-time substitution). Soil response trajectories vary for a number of reasons, such as variability in initial ecosystem conditions, diversity in agricultural methods, variability in the mix of crops and cropping intensity, and environmental sensitivity to alteration (varying resistance and resilience). Studies of rock mulch soils indicate enhanced fertility, with elevated organic carbon, nitrogen, and available phosphorus levels, increased infiltration rates and moisture retention, and no evidence of compaction. By contrast, cultivation effects vary widely for terraced soils. Although numerous studies have focused on irrigation canals, irrigated soils have received far less attention. Soil studies of irrigation systems along the Gila and Santa Cruz rivers of Arizona now underway will help fill this research gap. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.